In the United States, the passage of appropriations bills is central to how government operates. The Constitution explicitly requires that public money be spent only pursuant to laws passed by Congress, a provision commonly called the “power of the purse.” This reflects the Founders’ design that the executive administers programs but cannot fund them without legislative authorisation.[1] The annual cycle typically begins with the President’s budget proposal, submitted to Congress in early February. Although this submission frames priorities, it is not binding and exists because of statute rather than the Constitution, most notably the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 and subsequent OMB guidance that structures how the executive prepares the budget.[2] Congress then adopts a budget resolution that sets overall spending and revenue levels. This resolution provides a framework for later decisions but does not itself become law; it is a concurrent resolution not presented to the President.[3] Detailed appropriations work is carried out by the House and Senate Appropriations Committees, each divided into twelve parallel subcommittees that draft the annual bills covering specific policy domains. This committee system operates under Congress’s general legislative powers. Although the Constitution’s Origination Clause formally applies to “bills for raising revenue”, House practice and precedent have given the House a practical primacy in money matters while leaving the strict constitutional status of appropriations outside the revenue clause contested.[4] After mark-ups and floor debate, differences between House and Senate versions are reconciled, often via conference, and identical text is repassed by both chambers. The President may then sign or veto the bill; if no action is taken within ten days (Sundays excepted) while Congress is in session, the bill becomes law, but if Congress has adjourned, the measure fails by “pocket veto.”[5] Appropriations govern discretionary spending only. In 2024, discretionary outlays were about $1.8 trillion out of total federal outlays of about $6.8 trillion (roughly 27%) with the remainder largely mandatory spending (for example Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid) and net interest. Thus, a precise phrasing is that discretionary spending is “about a quarter to a third” of the budget in recent years.[6] Timing matters. The federal fiscal year runs from 1 October to 30 September. If all twelve regular appropriations bills are not enacted by the deadline, Congress may pass a continuing resolution (CR) to provide temporary funding, often close to prior-year levels. If neither regular appropriations nor a CR is in place for affected accounts, a funding lapse occurs and a shutdown follows.[7] During a shutdown, two distinct principles explain what continues. First, excepted activities proceed under the Antideficiency Act where necessary for the safety of human life or the protection of property (for example, air traffic control), even though those activities are typically funded through annual appropriations. Second, most mandatory benefits (for example Social Security and Medicare) continue because they are funded by permanent law, though some administrative services supported by discretionary funds may be curtailed or delayed. This distinction helps explain why high-profile services can persist while many routine operations pause.[8] Ultimately, the appropriations process demonstrates both constitutional accountability; Congress holds the purse strings and the system of separated powers means there is clear potential for delays in the legislative process. Its recurring flashpoints (continuing resolutions and occasional shutdowns) are best understood as the by-products of a design that privileges bargaining and scrutiny over speed.[9] [1] https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artI-S9-C7-1/ALDE_00001095 [2] https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/a11.pdf [3] https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R48284 [4] https://appropriations.house.gov/subcommittees [5] https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/article-1/section-7 [6] https://www.cbo.gov/publication/61184 [7] https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/R/PDF/R47106/R47106.3.pdf [8] https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47693 [9] https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/R/PDF/R47106/R47106.3.pdf
